Conditional Probability

Life is full of random events! You need to get a “feel” for them to be a smart and successful person.

Independent Events

Events can be “Independent“, meaning each event is not affected by any other events.

Example: Tossing a coin.

Each toss of a coin is a perfect isolated thing.

What it did in the past will not affect the current toss.

The chance is simply 1-in-2, or 50%, just like ANY toss of the coin.

So each toss is an Independent Event.

Dependent Events

But events can also be “dependent” … which means they can be affected by previous events …

Example: Marbles in a Bag

2 blue and 3 red marbles are in a bag.

What are the chances of getting a blue marble?

The chance is 2 in 5

But after taking one out the chances change!

So the next time:

if we got a red marble before, then the chance of a blue marble next is 2 in 4

if we got a blue marble before, then the chance of a blue marble next is 1 in 4

This is because we are removing marbles from the bag.

So the next event depends on what happened in the previous event, and is called dependent.

Replacement

Note: if we replace the marbles in the bag each time, then the chances do not change and the events are independent:

• With Replacement: the events are Independent (the chances don’t change)
• Without Replacement: the events are Dependent (the chances change)

Dependent events are what we look at here.

Tree Diagram

A Tree Diagram: is a wonderful way to picture what is going on, so let’s build one for our marbles example.

There is a 2/5 chance of pulling out a Blue marble, and a 3/5 chance for Red:

We can go one step further and see what happens when we pick a second marble:

If a blue marble was selected first there is now a 1/4 chance of getting a blue marble and a 3/4 chance of getting a red marble.

If a red marble was selected first there is now a 2/4 chance of getting a blue marble and a 2/4 chance of getting a red marble.

Now we can answer questions like “What are the chances of drawing 2 blue marbles?”

Answer: it is a 2/5 chance followed by a 1/4 chance:

Did you see how we multiplied the chances? And got 1/10 as a result.

The chances of drawing 2 blue marbles is 1/10

Notation

We love notation in mathematics! It means we can then use the power of algebra to play around with the ideas. So here is the notation for probability:

P(A) means “Probability Of Event A”

In our marbles example Event A is “get a Blue Marble first” with a probability of 2/5:

P(A) = 2/5

And Event B is “get a Blue Marble second” … but for that we have 2 choices:

• If we got a Blue Marble first the chance is now 1/4
• If we got a Red Marble first the chance is now 2/4

So we have to say which one we want, and use the symbol “|” to mean “given”:

P(B|A) means “Event B given Event A”

In other words, event A has already happened, now what is the chance of event B?

P(B|A) is also called the “Conditional Probability” of B given A.

And in our case:

P(B|A) = 1/4

So the probability of getting 2 blue marbles is:

And we write it as

 

Let’s do the next example using only notation:

Example: Drawing 2 Kings from a Deck

Event A is drawing a King first, and Event B is drawing a King second.

For the first card the chance of drawing a King is 4 out of 52 (there are 4 Kings in a deck of 52 cards):

P(A) = 4/52

But after removing a King from the deck the probability of the 2nd card drawn is less likely to be a King (only 3 of the 51 cards left are Kings):

P(B|A) = 3/51

And so:

P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B|A) = (4/52) x (3/51) = 12/2652 = 1/221

So the chance of getting 2 Kings is 1 in 221, or about 0.5%

Finding Hidden Data

Using Algebra we can also “change the subject” of the formula, like this:

Start with:
 
P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B|A)

Swap sides:
 
P(A) x P(B|A) = P(A and B)

Divide by P(A):
 
P(B|A) = P(A and B) / P(A)

And we have another useful formula:

Example: Ice Cream

70% of your friends like Chocolate, and 35% like Chocolate AND like Strawberry.

What percent of those who like Chocolate also like Strawberry?

P(Strawberry|Chocolate) = P(Chocolate and Strawberry) / P(Chocolate)

0.35 / 0.7 = 50%

50% of your friends who like Chocolate also like Strawberry

 

Big Example: Soccer Game

You are off to soccer, and want to be the Goalkeeper, but that depends who is the Coach today:

• with Coach Sam the probability of being Goalkeeper is 0.5
• with Coach Alex the probability of being Goalkeeper is 0.3

Sam is Coach more often … about 6 out of every 10 games (a probability of 0.6).

So, what is the probability you will be a Goalkeeper today?

 

Let’s build a tree diagram. First we show the two possible coaches: Sam or Alex:

The probability of getting Sam is 0.6, so the probability of Alex must be 0.4 (together the probability is 1)

Now, if you get Sam, there is 0.5 probability of being Goalie (and 0.5 of not being Goalie):

If you get Alex, there is 0.3 probability of being Goalie (and 0.7 not):

The tree diagram is complete, now let’s calculate the overall probabilities. Remember that:

P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B|A)

Here is how to do it for the “Sam, Yes” branch:

(When we take the 0.6 chance of Sam being coach times the 0.5 chance that Sam will let you be Goalkeeper we end up with an 0.3 chance.)

But we are not done yet! We haven’t included Alex as Coach:

An 0.4 chance of Alex as Coach, followed by an 0.3 chance gives 0.12

And the two “Yes” branches of the tree together make:

0.3 + 0.12 = 0.42 probability of being a Goalkeeper today

(That is a 42% chance)

Check

One final step: complete the calculations and make sure they add to 1:

0.3 + 0.3 + 0.12 + 0.28 = 1

Yes, they add to 1, so that looks right.

Friends and Random Numbers

Here is another quite different example of Conditional Probability.

4 friends (Alex, Blake, Chris and Dusty) each choose a random number between 1 and 5. What is the chance that any of them chose the same number?

Let’s add our friends one at a time …

 

First, what is the chance that Alex and Blake have the same number?

Blake compares his number to Alex’s number. There is a 1 in 5 chance of a match.

As a tree diagram:

Note: “Yes” and “No” together  makes 1
(1/5 + 4/5 = 5/5 = 1)

 

Now, let’s include Chris …

But there are now two cases to consider:

• If Alex and Blake did match, then Chris has only one number to compare to.
• But if Alex and Blake did not match then Chris has two numbers to compare to.

And we get this:

For the top line (Alex and Blake did match) we already have a match (a chance of 1/5).

But for the “Alex and Blake did not match” there is now a 2/5 chance of Chris matching (because Chris gets to match his number against both Alex and Blake).

And we can work out the combined chance by multiplying the chances it took to get there:

Following the “No, Yes” path … there is a 4/5 chance of No, followed by a 2/5 chance of Yes:

(4/5) × (2/5) = 8/25

Following the “No, No” path … there is a 4/5 chance of No, followed by a 3/5 chance of No:

(4/5) × (3/5) = 12/25

Also notice that when we add all chances together we still get 1 (a good check that we haven’t made a mistake):

(5/25) + (8/25) + (12/25) = 25/25 = 1

 

Now what happens when we include Dusty?

It is the same idea, just more of it:

OK, that is all 4 friends, and the “Yes” chances together make 101/125:

Answer: 101/125

 

But here is something interesting … if we follow the “No” path we can skip all the other calculations and make our life easier:

The chances of not matching are:

(4/5) × (3/5) × (2/5) = 24/125

So the chances of matching are:

1 – (24/125) = 101/125

(And we didn’t really need a tree diagram for that!)

 

And that is a popular trick in probability:

It is often easier to work out the “No” case
(and subtract from 1 for the “Yes” case)

(This idea is shown in more detail at Shared Birthdays.)

 

 

pharynx, (Greek: “throat”) cone-shaped passageway leading from the oral and nasal cavities in the head to the esophagus and larynx. The pharynx chamber serves both respiratory and digestive functions. Thick fibres of muscle and connective tissue attach the pharynx to the base of the skull and surrounding structures. Both circular and longitudinal muscles occur in the walls of the pharynx; the circular muscles form constrictions that help push food to the esophagus and prevent air from being swallowed, while the longitudinal fibres lift the walls of the pharynx during swallowing.

The pharynx consists of three main divisions. The anterior portion is the nasal pharynx, the back section of the nasal cavity. The nasal pharynx connects to the second region, the oral pharynx, by means of a passage called an isthmus. The oral pharynx begins at the back of the mouth cavity and continues down the throat to the epiglottis, a flap of tissue that covers the air passage to the lungs and that channels food to the esophagus. Triangular-shaped recesses in the walls of this region house the palatine tonsils, two masses of lymphatic tissue prone to infection. The isthmus connecting the oral and nasal regions is extremely beneficial in humans. It allows them to breathe through either the nose or the mouth and, when medically necessary, allows food to be passed to the esophagus by nasal tubes. The third region is the laryngeal pharynx, which begins at the epiglottis and leads down to the esophagus. Its function is to regulate the passage of air to the lungs and food to the esophagus.

Britannica Quiz

The Human Body

You may know that the human brain is composed of two halves, but what fraction of the human body is made up of blood? Test both halves of your mind in this human anatomy quiz.

Two small tubes (eustachian tubes) connect the middle ears to the pharynx and allow air pressure on the eardrum to be equalized. Head colds sometimes inflame the tubes, causing earaches and hearing difficulties. Other medical afflictions associated with the pharynx include tonsillitis, cancer, and various types of throat paralyses caused by polio, diphtheria, rabies, or nervous-system injuries.

The term pharynx may also be used to describe a differentiated portion of the invertebrate alimentary canal. In some invertebrate species, the structure is thick and muscular. It is occasionally eversible (rotated or turned outward) and may have multiple functions—for example, being both suctorial and peristaltic in nature.

Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now