[Update] Anthophyta | anthophyta – NATAVIGUIDES

Rolf Sauermost (Projektleiter)
Doris Freudig (Redakteurin)

Erweiterte Redaktion

Dr. Michael Bonk (Assistenz)
Dr. Andreas Sendtko (Assistenz)
Dr. Helmut Genaust (Etymologische Bearbeitung)
Dr. Claudia Gack (Bildtafelredaktion)

Grafik:

Hermann Bausch
Dr. Michael Bonk (EDV)
Wolfgang Hanns
Laura C. Hartmann (EDV)
Professor Dr. Rüdiger Hartmann (EDV)
Klaus Hemmann
Manfred Himmler
Rudolf Kempf (EDV)
Martin Lay (EDV)
Rolf Sauermost (EDV)
Dr. Richard Schmid
Hanns Strub
Melanie Waigand-Brauner (EDV)

CD-ROM-Ausgabe:

Doris Freudig (Redaktion und Konzeption)
Richard Zinken (Beratung)

Berater

Prof. Dr. Arno Bogenrieder (Botanik)
Prof. Dr. Klaus-Günter Collatz (Zoologie)
Prof. Dr. Hans Kössel (†) (Biochemie, Molekularbiologie)
Prof. Dr. Uwe Maier (Biochemie, Molekularbiologie)
Prof. Dr. Günther Osche (Zoologie)
Prof. Dr. Georg Schön (Mikrobiologie)

Autoren

Rolf Sauermost (Projektleiter)Doris Freudig (Redakteurin)Dr. Michael Bonk (Assistenz)Dr. Andreas Sendtko (Assistenz)Dr. Helmut Genaust (Etymologische Bearbeitung)Dr. Claudia Gack (Bildtafelredaktion)Hermann BauschDr. Michael Bonk (EDV)Wolfgang HannsLaura C. Hartmann (EDV)Professor Dr. Rüdiger Hartmann (EDV)Klaus HemmannManfred HimmlerRudolf Kempf (EDV)Martin Lay (EDV)Rolf Sauermost (EDV)Dr. Richard SchmidHanns StrubMelanie Waigand-Brauner (EDV)Doris Freudig (Redaktion und Konzeption)Richard Zinken (Beratung)Prof. Dr. Arno Bogenrieder (Botanik)Prof. Dr. Klaus-Günter Collatz (Zoologie)Prof. Dr. Hans Kössel (†) (Biochemie, Molekularbiologie)Prof. Dr. Uwe Maier (Biochemie, Molekularbiologie)Prof. Dr. Günther Osche (Zoologie)Prof. Dr. Georg Schön (Mikrobiologie)

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Anhäuser, Marcus (M.A.)
Arnheim, Dr. Katharina (K.A.)
Becker-Follmann, Dr. Johannes (J.B.-F.)
Bensel, Dr. Joachim (J.Be.)
Bergfeld (†), Dr. Rainer (R.B.)
Berthold, Prof. Dr. Peter (P.B.)
Bogenrieder, Prof. Dr. Arno (A.B.)
Bohrmann, PD Dr. Johannes (J.B.)
Bonk, Dr. Michael (M.B.)
Born, Prof. Dr. Jan (J.Bo.)
Braun, Andreas (A.Br.)
Bürger, Prof. Dr. Renate (R.Bü.)
Cassada, Dr. Randall (R.C.)
Collatz, Prof. Dr. Klaus-Günter (K.-G.C.)
Culmsee, Dr. Carsten (C.C.)
Drews, Dr. Martina (M.D.)
Drossé, Inke (I.D.)
Duell-Pfaff, Dr. Nixe (N.D.)
Duffner, Dr. Klaus (K.D.)
Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Prof. Dr. Irenäus (I.E.)
Eisenhaber, Dr. Frank (F.E.)
Emschermann, Dr. Peter (P.E.)
Engelbrecht, Beate (B.E.)
Engeser, PD Dr. Theo (T.E.)
Eurich, Dr. Christian (C.E.)
Ewig, Bettina (B.Ew.)
Fässler, Dr. Peter (P.F.)
Fehrenbach, Dr. Heinz (H.F.)
Fix, Dr. Michael (M.F.)
Flemming, Alexandra (A.F.)
Franzen, Dr. Jens Lorenz (J.F.)
Freudig, Doris (D.F.)
Gack, Dr. Claudia (C.G.)
Gallenmüller, Dr. Friederike (F.G.)
Ganter, Sabine (S.G.)
Gärtig, Susanne (S.Gä.)
Gärtner, PD Dr. Wolfgang (W.G.)
Gassen, Prof. Dr. Hans-Günter
Geinitz, Christian (Ch.G.)
Genth, Dr. Harald (H.G.)
Gläser, Dr. Birgitta (B.G.)
Götting, Prof. Dr. Klaus-Jürgen (K.-J.G.)
Grasser, Dr. habil. Klaus (K.G.)
Grieß, Dr. Eike (E.G.)
Grüttner, Dr. Astrid (A.G.)
Häbe, Martina (M.Hä.)
Haken, Prof. Dr. Hermann
Hanser, Dr. Hartwig (H.Ha.)
Harder, Deane Lee (D.Ha.)
Hartmann, Prof. Dr. Rüdiger (R.H.)
Hassenstein, Prof. Dr. Bernhard (B.H.)
Haug-Schnabel, PD Dr. Gabriele (G.H.-S.)
Hemminger, Dr. habil. Hansjörg (H.H.)
Herbstritt, Dr. Lydia (L.H.)
Hobom, Dr. Barbara (B.Ho.)
Hoffrichter, Dr. Odwin (O.H.)
Hohl, Dr. Michael (M.H.)
Hoos, Katrin (K.H.)
Horn, Dagmar (D.H.)
Horn, Prof. Dr. Eberhard (E.H.)
Huber, Christoph (Ch.H.)
Huber, Dr. Gerhard (G.H.)
Huber, Prof. Dr. Robert
Hug, Dr. Agnes M. (A.H.)
Illerhaus, Dr. Jürgen (J.I.)
Illes, Prof. Dr. Peter (P.I.)
Illing, Prof. Dr. Robert-Benjamin (R.B.I.)
Irmer, Juliette (J.Ir.)
Jaekel, Dr. Karsten
Jäger, Dr. Rudolf
Jahn, Dr. Ilse
Jahn, Prof. Dr. Theo (T.J.)
Jendritzky, Prof. Dr. Gerd (G.J.)
Jendrsczok, Dr. Christine (Ch.J.)
Jerecic, Renate (R.J.)
Jordan, Dr. Elke (E.J.)
Just, Dr. Lothar (L.J.)
Just, Margit (M.J.)
Kary, Michael (M.K.)
Kaspar, Dr. Robert
Kattmann, Prof. Dr. Ulrich (U.K.)
Kindt, Silvan (S.Ki.)
Kirchner, Prof. Dr. Wolfgang (W.K.)
Kirkilionis, Dr. Evelin (E.K.)
Kislinger, Claudia (C.K.)
Klein-Hollerbach, Dr. Richard (R.K.)
Klonk, Dr. Sabine (S.Kl.)
Kluge, Prof. Dr. Friedrich (F.K.)
König, Dr. Susanne (S.Kö.)
Körner, Dr. Helge (H.Kör.)
Kössel (†), Prof. Dr. Hans (H.K.)
Kühnle, Ralph (R.Kü.)
Kuss (†), Prof. Dr. Siegfried (S.K.)
Kyrieleis, Armin (A.K.)
Lahrtz, Stephanie (S.L.)
Lamparski, Prof. Dr. Franz (F.L.)
Landgraf, Dr. Uta (U.L.)
Lange, Prof. Dr. Herbert (H.L.)
Lange, Jörg
Langer, Dr. Bernd (B.La.)
Larbolette, Dr. Oliver (O.L.)
Laurien-Kehnen, Dr. Claudia (C.L.)
Lay, Dr. Martin (M.L.)
Lechner-Ssymank, Brigitte (B.Le.)
Leinberger, Annette (A.L.)
Leven, Prof. Franz-Josef (F.J.L.)
Liedvogel, Prof. Dr. Bodo (B.L.)
Littke, Dr. habil. Walter (W.L.)
Loher, Prof. Dr. Werner (W.Lo.)
Lützenkirchen, Dr. Günter (G.L.)
Mack, Dr. Frank (F.M.)
Mahner, Dr. Martin (M.Ma.)
Maier, PD Dr. Rainer (R.M.)
Maier, Prof. Dr. Uwe (U.M.)
Marksitzer, Dr. René (R.Ma.)
Markus, Prof. Dr. Mario (M.M.)
Martin, Dr. Stefan (S.Ma.)
Medicus, Dr. Gerhard (G.M.)
Mehler, Ludwig (L.M.)
Mehraein, Dr. Susan (S.Me.)
Meier, Kirstin (K.M.)
Meineke, Sigrid (S.M.)
Mohr, Prof. Dr. Hans (H.M.)
Mosbrugger, Prof. Dr. Volker (V.M.)
Mühlhäusler, Andrea (A.M.)
Müller, Dr. Ralph (R.Mü.)
Müller, Ulrich (U.Mü.)
Müller, Wolfgang Harry (W.H.M.)
Murmann-Kristen, Dr. Luise (L.Mu.)
Mutke, Jens (J.M.)
Narberhaus, Ingo (I.N.)
Neub, Dr. Martin (M.N.)
Neumann, Dr. Harald (H.Ne.)
Neumann, Prof. Dr. Herbert (H.N.)
Nick, PD Dr. Peter (P.N.)
Nörenberg, Prof. Dr. Wolfgang (W.N.)
Nübler-Jung, Prof. Dr. Katharina (K.N.)
Oehler, Prof. Dr. Jochen (J.Oe.)
Oelze, Prof. Dr. Jürgen (J.O.)
Olenik, Dr. Claudia (C.O.)
Osche, Prof. Dr. Günther (G.O.)
Panesar, Arne Raj
Panholzer, Bärbel (B.P.)
Paul, PD Dr. Andreas (A.P.)
Paulus, Prof. Dr. Hannes (H.P.)
Pfaff, Dr. Winfried (W.P.)
Pickenhain, Prof. Dr. Lothar (L.P.)
Probst, Dr. Oliver (O.P.)
Ramstetter, Dr. Elisabeth (E.R.)
Ravati, Alexander (A.R.)
Rehfeld, Dr. Klaus (K.Re.)
Reiner, Dr. Susann Annette (S.R.)
Riede, Dr. habil. Klaus (K.R.)
Riegraf, Dr. Wolfgang (W.R.)
Riemann, Prof. Dr. Dieter
Roth, Prof. Dr. Gerhard
Rübsamen-Waigmann, Prof. Dr. Helga
Sachße (†), Dr. Hanns (H.S.)
Sander, Prof. Dr. Klaus (K.S.)
Sauer, Prof. Dr. Peter (P.S.)
Sauermost, Elisabeth (E.Sa.)
Sauermost, Rolf (R.S.)
Schaller, Prof. Dr. Friedrich
Schaub, Prof. Dr. Günter A. (G.Sb.)
Schickinger, Dr. Jürgen (J.S.)
Schindler, Dr. Franz (F.S.)
Schindler, Dr. Thomas (T.S.)
Schley, Yvonne (Y.S.)
Schling-Brodersen, Dr. Uschi
Schmeller, Dr. Dirk (D.S.)
Schmitt, Prof. Dr. Michael (M.S.)
Schmuck, Dr. Thomas (T.Schm.)
Scholtyssek, Christine (Ch.S.)
Schön, Prof. Dr. Georg (G.S.)
Schönwiese, Prof. Dr. Christian-Dietrich (C.-D.S.)
Schwarz, PD Dr. Elisabeth (E.S.)
Seibt, Dr. Uta
Sendtko, Dr. Andreas (A.Se.)
Sitte, Prof. Dr. Peter
Spatz, Prof. Dr. Hanns-Christof (H.-C.S.)
Speck, Prof. Dr. Thomas (T.Sp.)
Ssymank, Dr. Axel (A.S.)
Starck, PD Dr. Matthias (M.St.)
Steffny, Herbert (H.St.)
Sternberg, Dr. Klaus (K.St.)
Stöckli, Dr. Esther (E.St.)
Streit, Prof. Dr. Bruno (B.St.)
Strittmatter, PD Dr. Günter (G.St.)
Stürzel, Dr. Frank (F.St.)
Sudhaus, Prof. Dr. Walter (W.S.)
Tewes, Prof. Dr. Uwe
Theopold, Dr. Ulrich (U.T.)
Uhl, Dr. Gabriele (G.U.)
Unsicker, Prof. Dr. Klaus (K.U.)
Vaas, Rüdiger (R.V.)
Vogt, Prof. Dr. Joachim (J.V.)
Vollmer, Prof. Dr. Dr. Gerhard (G.V.)
Wagner, Prof. Dr. Edgar (E.W.)
Wagner, Eva-Maria
Wagner, Thomas (T.W.)
Wandtner, Dr. Reinhard (R.Wa.)
Warnke-Grüttner, Dr. Raimund (R.W.)
Weber, Dr. Manfred (M.W.)
Wegener, Dr. Dorothee (D.W.)
Weth, Dr. Robert (R.We.)
Weyand, Anne (A.W.)
Weygoldt, Prof. Dr. Peter (P.W.)
Wicht, PD Dr. Helmut (H.Wi.)
Wickler, Prof. Dr. Wolfgang
Wild, Dr. Rupert (R.Wi.)
Wilker, Lars (L.W.)
Wilmanns, Prof. Dr. Otti
Wilps, Dr. Hans (H.W.)
Winkler-Oswatitsch, Dr. Ruthild (R.W.-O.)
Wirth, Dr. Ulrich (U.W.)
Wirth, Prof. Dr. Volkmar (V.W.)
Wolf, Dr. Matthias (M.Wo.)
Wuketits, Prof. Dr. Franz M. (F.W.)
Wülker, Prof. Dr. Wolfgang (W.W.)
Zähringer, Dr. Harald (H.Z.)
Zeltz, Dr. Patric (P.Z.)
Ziegler, Prof. Dr. Hubert
Ziegler, Dr. Reinhard (R.Z.)
Zimmermann, Prof. Dr. Manfred
Zissler, Dr. Dieter (D.Z.)
Zöller, Thomas (T.Z.)
Zompro, Dr. Oliver (O.Z.)

As we shall see, within each division there is something
distinctive about the mode of reproduction and the
morphology of the plants.

Kingdoms

In addition to plants we will look at selected Protista,
Bacteria and Fungi that share some plant-like features and
some of which are called plants by many people.

We are using a traditional classification of organisms
into five kingdoms and the one kingdom that we do not look
at is Animalia. If you look through other textbooks you may
see organisms move around. At one time multicellular algae
were included in Plantae, whereas they are now grouped with
unicellular organisms in the Protista. Also many fungus-like
organisms have been moved into the Protista. Raven’s
“Biology of Plants” divides the bacteria into two kingdoms:
Archaebacteria, an unusual group that may have been the
ancestor of other kingdoms and Eubacteria which includes
most of today’s bacteria.

This illustrates the fact that ideas about classification
keep changing from the grand scale of kingdoms down to
species and even sub-species. In recent years molecular
characters have increasingly been used to decide taxonomic
relationships and disputes. When we discuss “plant like”
organisms it will be useful to have a list of plant features
in mind for comparison. All members of the kingdom Plantae
have:

• eukaryotic cells (containing vacuoles, chloroplasts
  and other organelles)
• cell walls composed of cellulose and pectin
• differentiated cell types
• photosynthesis, (utilizing chlorophylls a and b, and
  storing starch)
• adaptation for life on the land
• sexual reproduction through an alternation of
  generations

Prokaryotes have various mechanisms for gene exchange but
all eukaryotes have some method of sexual reproduction
involving cellular fusion. This entails that at some time
there must be a stage of segregation – otherwise we would go
on increasing our chromosome number at every generation.

Given that a fusion of haploid cells (gametes) leads to a
diploid cell (zygote) which at some time undergoes meiosis
to give rise to more haploid cells, there are two obvious
ways that organisms could develop:

• (a) exist normally as haploid cells (single or
  multicellular), occasionally fuse to form a zygote which
  immediately undergoes meiosis to begin a new haploid
  generation or:
• (b) exist normally as diploid cells which
  occasionally undergo meiosis, followed more or less
  immediately by fusion to form a zygote which begins a new
  diploid generation

There is however a third way which plants have adopted
which combines both of these systems in an alternation of
generations:

• (c) the organism can exist in both haploid and
  diploid states; the zygote grows into a diploid
  sporophyte in which some cells undergo meiosis to
  produce spores; the spores germinate and grow into a
  haploid gametophyte that produces male and/or
  female gametes; the gametes fuse to produce a new
  zygote

Alternation of Generations

Alternation of generations occurs throughout the plant
kingdom right through to flowering plants and it is
impossible to understand plant reproduction without grasping
this concept.

Some algae show this feature particularly well.
For example in (Sea
lettuce) the haploid and diploid generations are well
developed and look identical until they produce gametes or
spores, respectively:

Life cycle of

Exceptions to the rule